Funny place to find a chicken?

Kingdom: Fungi

Family: Fomitopsidaceae

Genus: Laetiporus

“The chicken of the woods”. This may sound like some wild species of chicken which roams freely in forests, but it is actually a fungus that grows on decaying deciduous trees (much less exciting, I know). The name comes from the fungus’ extraordinary resemblance to chicken meat when it is cooked, although not all parts of the mushroom is edible. It has the same texture and ‘peeling’ you get with chicken, and the taste resemblance is also said to be remarkable. It is even used as a vegetarian substitute for chicken as a delicacy. If not cooked properly, however, it can give you bad stomach pain, although not as bad as if you eat uncooked actual chicken meat! It can also give you swollen lips, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness, so double check the cooking instructions if you’re giving it a go.

The colour of chicken of the woods varies from species to species, ranging from an off-white colour to bright orange. This is one of the paler specimens, especially due to the time of year. They usually grow between May and November so this specimen is now likely very old, leading to it becoming paler and almost chalk-like. As it has passed is prime, it is likely that this specimen would give you some of the symptoms I mentioned earlier if you ate it, even if you cooked it properly. They are important in breaking down tough materials wood is made of and returning the nutrients from the decaying organism to the soil.

They can grow up to huge sizes, and as this is clearly a large bracket of the mushrooms it is likely that it has been cut back, which is why they lack the normal lobed structure. It is likely that it hasn’t been completely removed as this way it can continue decomposing the dead wood without creating an obstruction on the path, and it removes the need for the big task of removing the tree stump manually. What a useful little chicken!

A splash of colour!

Kingdom: Plantae

Family: Cornaceae

Species: Cornus sanguinea

One of the most brightly coloured shrubs growing around the UEA broad is the red dogwood. Dogwoods produce creamy white flowers in the spring, followed by blue/white berries with dark green leaves, which redden in autumn. The leaves then fall to reveal beautifully brightly coloured stems due to being a deciduous species. They are an independent species, and need very little management although coppicing should take place every February/March, cutting them down to a woody base within 4” of the ground before they bud. They need full sun to partial shade and are in a good location for sunlight next to the UEA broad, in an area that has few trees to obscure sunlight. They most often grow on the margins of woodland so they fit right in! They aren’t fussy about their soil conditions and can grow in damp soil, which is usually where they grow if wild. They are wildly sold as plants for people to plant in their gardens too, usually to add colour in winter. Their flowers are hermaphrodite and are small at around 5-10 millimetres in diameter and are insect pollinated. They produce a black berry fruit containing a single seed, called "dogberries".

This species of dogwood is native to most of Europe and Western Asia. Its leaves provide food for some animals, and dogberries are eaten by some mammals and many birds. Other species of dogwood are native to North America and Eastern Asia, where they have been traditionally used for a variety of purposes. Native Americans use the inner bark in tobacco mixtures in their sacred pipe ceremony. Some tribes eat the sour berries (usually eaten by birds – up to 18 species) to treat colds and to slow bleeding, whereas others made arrow shafts and tools from the branches and shoots due to the wood being so hard. This lead to the origin of the name “dogwood” – this has nothing to do with dogs, instead it originated from an old word “dag” which refers to a sharp tool. The leaves, bark and roots were also used to make medicine, and it is widely used for basket weaving. If bark is gathered in early spring, it retains its deep red colour when dried.

The many uses of Mullein

Kingdom: Plantae

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Species: Verbascum thapsus

Mullein is a plant also known as velvet dock. This is due to its velvety texture, which is its main distinguishable feature and is due to its soft, downy hairs. These help the leaves retain moisture. The leaves are large, sometimes up to a foot long, and a silvery-grey colour. The seeds are poisonous and are not used in herbal medicine. It is easily grown in Europe, North America and in parts of Asia. There are about 360 species of mullein. It can adapt to various environments.

The use of mullein in herbal medicine goes back to the Greek times, when the physician Dioscorides mentioned the benefits of Mullein against coughs. Mullein contains coumarin and rotenone, a natural insecticide and fish poison, which is supposed to be non-toxic to mammals. Uses include:

-    - Both external (ointment, compresses) and internal (tea, smoking) uses.

-    - When combined with matter, mullein produces a substance called mucilage, which coats and soothes the throat. Mullein tea is used for coughs and other respiratory illnesses, such as tuberculosis.

-    - It can sooth the intestine and be used to treat diarrhoea.

-    - The soothing mucilage has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties which help relieve haemorrhoid symptoms.

-    - Yellow flowers in certain species of mullein were once used as a source of yellow hair dye.

-    - Leaves can be applied to soften and protect the skin.

-    - Oil from the flowers can soothe earaches.

-    - Compresses made from mullein infusions can treat inflamed cold sores and herpes. There is one study where mullein seemed to help eliminate the herpes virus.

-    - Leaves can be used as toilet paper due to their soft texture.

-    - Can also be used to treat burns, bruises and gout.

-    - Has been used since Roman times for torches to repel witches.

Mullein is a very diverse plant and has many uses. It is often confused with lamb’s ear. Lamb’s ear produces pinkish-purple flowers, is much smaller and has softer leaves. The weeds found on campus are mullein as they grow as a rosette from a central stalk and have less soft leaves.

Due to the hair on the leaves, grazing animals do not eat them because they irritate their mucous membranes in the gut. It is an invasive plant, and once it is established in an area it is difficult to eradicate which is why it is so abundant on campus. The plants on campus have only recently being established, as they only have the base and have not gained height. The early structure of wide but short makes it possible for the most sunlight to fall on them.

It has a honey-like scent and local insects become pollinators of common mullein which leads to its development. A single common mullein plant can produce between 100,000 and 180,000 seeds which can lay dormant yet viable in the soil for many years, which is why its so hard to eradicate.

Shetland pony behaviour observations

One of the many underrated features of the campus which I have only just discovered - fields behind the lake full of horses, ponies and donkeys! I went for 7 weeks without knowing they were here so thought I'd write about some of the behaviour I saw in the hour or so that I was there.

Grooming

Ponies partake in social grooming. It can be used for bonding, to reconcile or resolve conflicts, as well as to clean themselves. This includes removal of items including dead skin, foreign objects, insects, ectoparasites, leaves dirt etc. 


Itching on the fence


This particular pony in the image was itching itself extensively on the wire fence by rubbing its body and head up and down against the wire. This could be a sign of lice. In the summer this could also be suffering from sweet itch. This happens when a horse is bitten by a midge and the horse's immune system recognises foreign proteins and overreacts, similar to hayfever in humans. This leads to release of substances including histamine, which causes itching.

Feeding

Ponies are grazing animals, designed to eat little and often, and they have evolved to eat in 18 out of every 24 hours. They feed on grass in a natural environment, but when kept they are fed hay or hard feeds. They can also eat carrots, but due to having a relatively high sugar content, they should not be fed them too often. People feeding ponies carrots or human food can cause ponies to become addicted to eating human food, and can lead to them being aggressive in the wild with people who do not want to share their food. Human food also gives them bad stomach ache.

Lying down

Ponies lie down to get REM sleep - they can nap while standing but to deeply sleep they need to lie down. They sleep for about two and a half hours in a 24-hour period, in short periods of 15 to 30 minutes at a time. This is an adapted predator-prey response as in the wild it allows fast escape if they are already standing. Horses have a 'stay apparatus' in their legs which means they can relax their leg muscles and sleep without collapsing. They often do this when it is sunny as they find it relaxing. Ponies don't tend to lie down and sleep if they are on their own as there is no one to keep watch and their instincts tell them to watch out for danger. If horses don't lie down, they become sleep deprived after a few days.

Myths of the magpies

Kingdom: Animalia

Family: Corvidae

Species: Pica pica

Magpies are common birds in the UK, and have quadrupled in numbers in the last 35 years. This increase is thought to be due to the amount of carrion from road kills available today, providing a year-round food source. They live in nests of sticks, mud, plant fibre and hair, which are usually situated in trees or bushes and love areas with scattered trees and shrub which include suburban areas. This makes the UEA campus a perfect environment, with plenty of trees and shrubs while still being a suburban area. The magpie builds its home "V" shapes in trees. Forks or V's in nature are symbolic of gateways or paths into the spirit realm and this is meant to ask us about our level of spiritual perception. They rarely travel more than 10 km from where they are born so most magpies born on the university grounds will stay here.

There are many myths and rumours about magpies and I thought I’d do them a favour and sort a few of them out:

1) They steal our jewellery!

Magpies are known for stealing sparkly and shiny objects such as jewellery, which is meant to be symbolic of our tendency to chase after false ideas or perceptions. However, recent research by the University of Exeter has shown that magpies don’t steal shiny objects, and are actually scared of them! This research may lead to a change in the definition of magpies in the Collins English Dictionary for a magpie as a ‘person who hoards small objects’. This may also have wider impacts, such as on the opera ‘La Gazza Ladra’ which is based on a servant girl being held responsible for a series of thefts which were actually committed by a magpie. This is now incorrect, and therefore makes little sense.

2) One for sorrow, two for joy…

Magpies are strongly associated with superstition, and has been since time as early as the sixteenth century, when the popular rhyme was first sung. The song has developed since these times with different numbers being given completely different meanings. There is clearly no truth in it, but it still remains a popular tradition in British culture today. There was once a tradition of raising your hat to a magpie, but as so few people wear hats these days, tradition has died out, although some people do still salute. They are associated with different superstitions in different areas of Britain – in Yorkshire they are associated with evil and you should make a sign of the cross to ward off evil, and in Scotland a single magpie is a sign of impending death!

3) They are responsible for songbird decline.

As we go into winter, the many magpies on the university grounds will be living off a primarily vegetarian diet, whereas in the summer it consists predominantly of ground invertebrates. In the spring, the magpie becomes a major predator as it has to provide for its young and it actually raids other songbirds’ nests and eats their eggs. It is often thought that this may be linked to decline in songbird numbers in the last 25 years, but research by the British Trust for Ornithology has found no evidence that increased numbers of magpies have caused declines in songbirds. It confirms that populations of prey species are not determined by the numbers of their predators, but instead by availability of food and suitable nesting sites are probably the main factors limiting songbird populations.

4) Magpies mate for life.

This is true, but is slightly more complicated than it seems. Magpies have a home territory of around five hectares, and between 25% and 60% of magpies in this area do not breed because nest sites are limited. They therefore form flocks with a home range of up to 20 hectares and then may pair up within the flock.

5) They have huge communal nests.

A typical magpie nest has a roof, and up to two entrances. Their nests are often adopted by long-eared owls. In the winter, these nests are shared by up to 200 magpies as they take part in communal roosting. This allows them to share body heat and decrease the thermoregulatory demands on the individuals within the roost. This is a behaviour also displayed in many other birds such as Jackdaws.

So some of the rumours are true, some of them not. Magpies do eat other birds’ eggs, but this is to feed their young and is not causing decline in songbird numbers. However, most impacts that magpies supposedly have on humans are not true – they don’t give us bad luck and they don’t steal our stuff. So maybe they’re not all that bad.

Does Hedera helix cause damage?

Kingdom: Plantae

Family: Araliaceae

Species: Hedera helix

Hedera helix is an evergreen, common species of ivy in the UK, and is widely spread across Europe. It is often seen climbing buildings or trees, which it does by using specialised hairs called aerial roots which cling to the surfaces. Hedera helix prefers non-reflective, darker, rough surfaces with a fairly neutral pH of around 6.5.

Leaves - Dark, glossy green pale veins.

Flowers – Yellowish green, appear in clusters called umbels.

Fruit – Purple-black to orange-yellow, present in mature plants, which ripen in late winter.

The flowers are very rich in nectar and act as a valuable food course for bees and other insects in late autumn when food is scarce, before many of the insects go into hibernation (such as wasps – the queen wasp constructs a golf ball-sized hibernation cell which needs to be in a sheltered place until late spring). Over 70 species of insects are attracted to the flowers. The ivy covering also provides shelter for insects, birds, bats and other small mammals. The ivy also attracts a very rare species, the golden hoverfly. The best chance of seeing one of these is by going to ancient ivy-covered trees. Some mature plants also produce berries, which are a nutritious food source for birds, although slightly poisonous to humans (cause severe discomfort). Also, at least 16 species of birds eat the berries that grow on the ivy.

Although it is often heard that ivy damages trees, and that the weight of it can make them fall over, this very rarely actually happens and it should not be removed. It is not a parasitic plant and has a separate root system in the soil where it absorbs its own nutrients, and its presence provides huge wildlife benefits. However, as Hedera helix can conceal defects or issues in the trees, sometimes it may need to be removed to allow assessment of the tree’s health. It may also need to be removed to conserve other plants such as lichens which grow on ancient trees.

As for growing on buildings, this is also not damaging – it is often used in Europe for its ability to cool the interior during summer and provide insulation during winter, and the protection it provides for the building during extreme weather. However, in other countries such as the United States it is classed as invasive and can choke other plants, and should be eradicated where it is found in countries such as the US, New Zealand, and Australia.

So in conclusion, Hedera helix is not damaging and its growth on the UEA grounds is a good sign as it increases the level of biodiversity on campus by providing shelter and a food source to many different species of birds and insects.

 

Field Trip - Winterton-On-Sea - Trampling and Biodiversity

Last Friday, we visited Winterton-on-Sea, and completed a transect from the beach to approximately 300m inland. We used a quadrat to record a variety of aspects measuring the biodiversity, including the number of species in each quadrat at each site.

When we moved forward to the sample point, Jemima (my partner in the investigation) would just throw the quadrat randomly to avoid biased placing of the quadrat. We then counted the number of species in the quadrat – this was rushed as we had very limited time so was not very accurate and we had to try and count them and then make an educated guess. This is not the most accurate way of measuring but it allowed us to gather enough data to make suggestions about the diversity of the habitat.

The graph shows a rapid initial increase, then a fairly random distribution of data. The initial increase was possibly due to there being more nutrients in the soil as we moved inland, and the conditions became less harsh as it was more sheltered from the shoreline conditions. It is sheltered by the concrete wall that is built along the coast – this is now covered in land so is not visible, rather, it just looks like a small hill. The soil on top of the concrete wall would have a different salinity level and so this may have affected the number of species present and may explain the decrease between sample points 13 and 17. If we had more time, we could have possibly recorded height of sample point above sea level, which is very difficult to measure accurately, and impossibly with the time constraints we had. We could have also measured the pH of the soil and looked at the effect this had, as the pH does decrease further inland. If these constraints weren’t in place I would also identify all the species that are present as then the number of species recorded is a more accurate measurement, rather than just make an estimate. 

Also, to gather a bigger sample size, I would do several transects, possibly three about 15 m apart to get a better idea of the diversity of the whole area. Although we did several transects amongst us as a group and this allowed us to discuss the findings, due to differences in sampling strategies there was great differences in the data. Also, there is the question of which measure of diversity is the best, as it may not be possible to record all in a proper investigation. It is questionable if number of species is the best measurement of species diversity, some may argue that percentage of bare land is a better measure.

We then collected a small amount of data which shows how the number of lichens changes with distance from footpath, to investigate the effect of humans trampling in the dune system. There were many factors to consider when doing this, such as:

• How far away from the path should we measure?
• Should we measure the same distance from the path each time, or do we alter the distance in comparison to width of path? Does this assume people walk off the path more if the path is wider?
• How do you class where the path ends? If using the level of trampling, is a trampling index needed? Do you need to measure the height of the vegetation each time to classify the level of trampling?
• How many paths do you need to measure to get a good sample size?
• Do you need to measure the percentage coverage in each square in the quadrat, to get an idea of how the lichen cover changes over an area or is just using the whole quadrat good enough? But then does this miss out all this information of how the lichen cover gradually changes?

Clearly, it is very difficult to take all these factors into consideration, especially with no prior planning. Although we did not get very much data on lichen coverage due to the fact that we were thinking about all these factors for so long, we did see a difference in the lichen being present off path, whereas on the paths there was none. To conserve this, you could have fewer defined paths, with small barriers either side of the path, or even just pieces of wood to indicate where the paths are, to put people off going off the paths and disturbing the vegetation away from the paths. As lichens are very easily disturbed, this would help increase lichen coverage. You could also have fences to prevent people going on certain areas completely, particularly areas that have been trampled on excessively, and allow them to recover as succession occurs. Information boards could also be placed on these pathways to educate people about why the dune systems need to be conserved, and to highlight the importance of limiting the effect that recreation activities have on the area. 

False Chanterelles

Kingdom: Fungi

Family: Hygrophoropsidaceae

Species: Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca

This is the False Chanterelle mushroom, known as Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca. It is given its name because the fungus resembles the edible Chanterelle. The False Chanterelle is fairly common in Britain and the UK, and while it is not poisonous, it has been known to give some people hallucinations and others have reported digestive problems. It is not particularly tasty either, described as being earthy and bitter, so is not classed as edible. They are in season from August – November. The ones I found have slightly wavy, lobed caps due to age.

It’s distinctive features include:

Cap - 2 to 8 cm across. Usually a convex shape and an orange colour, although the ones I found are going slightly brown as they are going out of season. This was the feature that most helped me to identify the species as it is the most distinctive.

Gills – A slightly brighter colour orange than the cap. Gills are used by mushrooms as a means of spore dispersal. These gills are decurrent (extend down the stem) and narrow. I used this feature to double check that I had correctly identified the species after I had examined the cap.

Stem – Small – 3 – 5 cm in height and 5 – 10 mm in diameter. Grows paler toward the base.

How is it different from the real Chanterelle?

The main way to tell the difference is by examining the gills. In real Chanterelles, the gills appear to be lumpy folds rather than close blades. This is because the real Chanterelle has false gills while the false Chanterelle has real gills. The False Chanterelle’s cap is also often a deeper orange and are not one uniform colour, rather, they are graded. The real Chanterelle is a more yellowy colour.

Stinging Nettles

Kingdom: Plantae

Family: Urticaceae

Species: Urtica dioica

While I was walking around UEA’s lake earlier this week trying to get inspiration for my first blog post, I stung my arm on a stinging nettle – something I am sure has happened to pretty much everyone who has ever set foot in the countryside. While looking for a dock leaf to get rid of the stinging, I realised I didn’t actually know if dock leaves worked, and thought that actually investigating stinging nettles a little bit seemed to be a good start for my first post.

Stinging nettles (Urtica dioica L.) sting you with tiny hollow hairs (the silica tips break off when they come into contact with something) on their leaves. They pierce the skin and inject a venom mixture of histamine, acetylcholine and serotonin (even the ‘happy hormone’ can cause you pain – when injected by stinging nettles, it becomes an irritant) which cause pain and inflammation, while tartaric and oxalic acid can extend the pain. However, dock leaves actually have no impact and the reasoning for using them is often backed up by false science used to increase their validity. Some people suggest it is because their sap is alkaline so neutralises the acid, but it’s actually acidic so this is not true. Some also claim they contain a natural antihistamine, but this is also false. Using actual antihistamine cream is much more likely to help, as it can block the receptors that histamine normally binds to and prevent it causing pain.

So at this point in my research I was still annoyed about my sting but then began reading about why nettles are actually a benefit to UK wildlife. The stinging nettle supports over 40 species of insects, including small tortoiseshell and peacock butterflies, and the nettle leaves form a protective shield against grazing animals which are potential predators to these small insects. The aphids living on them are sometimes eaten by blue tits and other woodland birds that dart around the stems. Nettles are also a magnet for other insect-eaters like hedgehogs, shrews, frogs and toads, at all times of year, so can greatly benefit biodiversity of an area. Therefore, while nettles are weeds and not threatened, they are often encouraged to grow by nature conservationists. This has led to charities running campaigns to get people to dedicate a patch of their garden to be left untouched to grow as it would in the wild, so plants such as nettles can grow and lead to a higher level of biodiversity in the small part of the garden – something which could be important as the population continues to grow and urban settlements expand, as mowing the lawn on a regular basis makes it very hard for many species to be able to live there. 

Nettles can also be used for humans’ purposes – they can be eaten as a vegetable, as cooking destroys the stings, for recipes such as nettle soup. Nettles are actually a good source of calcium, magnesium and iron among other trace elements and vitamins. Mature leaves can actually be used in production of cheese, cosmetics and dyeing fabric! They can also be used to make a tonic which can be used as a remedy for rheumatism (a disease causing inflammation in muscles and joints) as the nettle stings actually have anti-inflammatory properties which inhibit the inflammatory response, despite causing one itself!

So despite it hurting a bit when it stings you, nettles are a big contributor to enhancing biodiversity in an area and can be used for loads of purposes for humans too.